We use spectroscopic techniques such as Raman^1–34, FT-IR^{5,6,23,25,35–42,8,43–52,10,53–59,15,16,18,20–22}, QCL^{5,48,49,60–64}, and UV^{3,11,13,14,26,42,65–67} to detect a variety of materials.

We validate concentrations and presence of a variety of materials with MS^{23,39,45,52,68–73}, chromatography^{11,23,74,75,38,39,65,66,68–71}, and AFM^{4,12,28,76–78}.